随着全球金融危机发挥出来,商业作家理查德布莱克韦尔报告审查和解释经济前景和信贷危机和股票市场。 在这里,我们每天回答您的问题,最的在顶部。
什么是“熊市反弹?
熊市场的上涨是一个重要的股票价格向上运动,但在长期下跌趋势的整体。
它本质上是一个“市场调整反向”,这是短期内股市长期牛市的整体下降。
通常情况下,熊市反弹和市场调整不会持续很长时间,但他们可以转移高达百分之五或以上的前30个市场的总体趋势仍在继续。
1929年后,市场崩溃,例如,有一些重大集会,但在每一个股票价格长期持续下降的轨迹。 这些集会的几个看到一天跳指数超过百分之十。
在目前最大的问题是,股市近期的上扬,这推动价格上升了约百分之20年11月以来的低谷,是一个长期趋势,或只是熊市反弹的开始。
在欧洲天然气市场的混乱使我想知道同样的事情可能发生在加拿大。 我们对外国供应商的依赖?
在加拿大,几乎所有的天然气全部来自国内生产,因此它不太可能,任何其他国家可能会破坏我们的供应。
加拿大的天然气大部分产自艾伯塔省,萨斯喀彻温省和不列颠哥伦比亚省,与来自加拿大的大西洋海上气田产生一个小的数额。 它是通过对发送公里的管道数十万客户,包括房主,工业用户和发电厂。
然而,在安大略省的一些消费的天然气进口来自美国。
因此 , 我们基本上是自我气体是否足够?
是。 它帮助,加拿大是世界上第二大天然气生产国在世界上仅次于俄罗斯和美国。 关于我们所生产的一半出售给客户在美国。
究竟什么是“量化宽松”?
定量宽松涉及央行注入金融系统购买了各种证券,包括政府债券,抵押贷款,商业贷款和股票的钱。 通过大量的现金,支付的借款利率广泛的金融市场应该减少。
随着美国官方利率已接近零,定量宽松货币是少数剩余的工具之一,美国联邦储备委员会可用于尝试获取零售贷款利率下降,更多的钱流入个人借款和小型企业。
为什么叫呢?
单词“量”指的是钱被注入到系统中,而“放松”是指降低利率。 从本质上讲,现金被用来降低借款成本,扩大贷款,从美联储降低其基准利率通常路线相差。
通常情况下,经济注入现金,将推动通货膨胀。 但是,通货紧缩,而不是通货膨胀,是目前的主要关切。
这个词最早是20世纪90年代定量宽松来形容当时日本的货币政策。
什么是货币政策与财政政策的区别?
涉及货币政策行动的机构,采取了诸如中央银行,以控制货币和利率变化的供应。
在最基本的,降低利率或增加货币供应量可以扩大在衰退的一段时期的经济。
收紧银根,提高利率可以减缓经济活动和保持扩张时期,在抑制通货膨胀。
财政政策,另一方面,所涉及的行动,改变政府税收和支出水平。 这些举措还可以对整个经济产生重大影响,因为较高的政府支出或税收水平较低往往会极大地促进经济活动。
皇家地产表示 , 住宅价格将下降百分之3,加拿大今年。 多少钱的价格在最近陷入衰退?
在住房价格统计的问题是,有很多不同的方法来编译它们。
但是,毫无疑问,在90年代初上次经济衰退开始,房价受到了冲击。 根据加拿大房地产协会,有大约3.5每下降百分之加拿大的平均房价在1990年,比上一年。
房地产协会数字显示有一个类似2008年的价格比2007年下降。
有些每月比较显示更大的下降,但是。 至2007年11月和2008年11月,例如,全国平均房价下降了近百分之十,根据房地产协会。
个别市场均出现更大的波动。
皇家地产的数字表明,房价在2008年只下降了百分之1.1。 该公司预计在2009年回落了3每美分下降。
皇家地产总裁Phil索普说,住房市场目前正处于较好的形状比90年代初,随着价格的攀升并没有上颚同等程度的收入增加,而且减少了在市场上的投机活动。
汽车行业
我们已经听到这么多的美国和加拿大政府的计划 , 以摆脱困境的北美汽车业。 什么墨西哥政府做了些什么呢?
美国的救市,达17.4亿美元(美国)的贷款,以通用汽车公司和克莱斯勒公司,在12月宣布。
加拿大安大略省的反应是承诺的40亿美元(加拿大紧急贷款)两家公司的加拿大子公司。
墨西哥汽车制造商已要求3美元的政府亿美元的贷款(美国),以刺激汽车销售。 这笔钱将用于汽车经销商和采购商的融资。 墨西哥政府还没有作出回应。
不过,墨西哥可能是由于从通用汽车和克莱斯勒-以及与福特汽车公司-美国的救市利于建立小型,省油的汽车那里,工资率是非常有吸引力的汽车制造商。
中央银行
什么是与美国联邦储备委员会和财政部分别呢?
美国联邦储备委员会,通常称为美联储,是美国的中央银行。 它是对加拿大央行类似的作用,因为它集合利率和向成员提供贷款的银行。
该银行还规定,工作在加拿大进行,主要由金融机构总监办公室。 美联储还管理着美国的支票清算系统。
在财政部是政府财政部门的管理很像加拿大的财务部。
它收集税(在加拿大进行的加拿大税务局的作用),政府支付帐单,并管理联邦政府的债务。 财政部还印刷纸币和铸币厂硬币。
什么是有外汇储备的国家的目的?
外汇储备通常包括外币持有的现金,以及黄金和外汇储备为国际货币基金组织一边。
持有国家的有关在影响自己的货币汇率的灵活性外汇储备。 如果日本想支撑日元的价值,例如,它可以大量出售其持有的部分外汇储备购买日元,有效地移动,对货币需求增加,这往往能增加其价值。
(在最近几年,日本一直在做完全相反。他们购买了数十亿美元,出售日元,试图减缓日元升值,这是损害日本的出口。)
什么是“货币干预呢?”
当一个国家不考虑其货币价值的权利相比,与该另一个国家,其政府或中央银行可以使大量的货币购买或销售,试图权的不平衡。
例如,如果A国希望看到本国货币相对较低的B国,将出售自己的货币和购买B国货币的大量资金。 这将提高对本国货币,降低供求,可能压抑了它的价值。
如果一些国家共同努力,就能够对货币价值更大的影响?
有传言说,最大的工业国家可能试图干预外汇市场在不久的将来,以削减了日元的价值,附近的13年新高,是相对于美元。 在七大工业国财长周一表示,他们将监测市场,紧密合作,在适当“,因为他们都对日元的波动有关。
在过去,日本一直在利用货币干预转移,日元价值的最积极的国家。 自70年代中期,日本政府购买了数十亿美元,出售日元,试图减缓日元升值,这是损害日本出口的若干倍。
最后一个大型跨国公司的干预是在2000年9月,当欧洲中央银行,美国和日本销售了大量的美元买欧元以支撑欧洲货币,因而在下降百分之三十自推出在1999年1月。
什么是流动性注入?
中央银行可以利用自己的财政影响,试图让钱流向银行及其客户。 在流动性注入,他们赚钱的银行提供贷款,尽管金融机构必须作为抵押证券后得到它。 上周,加拿大央行表示,将200亿美元提供给加拿大的银行,周一表示,将保证让他们陷入困境的银行资产支持商业票据作为抵押的资产。 这将使一些银行更多的灵活性。 一个问题,说明银行首席经济学家唐德拉蒙德是,央行的注资只是在短期内-加拿大银行贷款,通常必须在90天内偿还。 但是,从顾客的需求趋势是朝着长期贷款-特别是从企业谁不能获得其他方式的钱-所以央行货币将不利于该得分了。
在哪里可以得到中央银行注入流动性的钱呢?
加拿大央行拥有数十亿美元的资产,最后计数-约56亿美元-主要是在非常安全的证券持有,如债券和国库券。 从本质上讲,它赚钱的时候提供给商业银行,这是暂时的风险交换的银行是把为担保的证券的安全。
是否减息 , 实际上有助于提高股市的?
从理论上讲,他们应该。 如果投资者正在努力使之间放入债券或股票时,他或她将钱看之间的债券收益率差和股票可能返回的决定。 债券收益率下降时,应利率下降,使股票的吸引力。 从本质上讲,对一只股票的竞争投资者的钱,并不需要提供高回报率。 然而,债券收益率并不总是央行减息,而他们没有这个时间。 一些非常高品质的公司债券,比如,提供比股市的巨大收益。 虽然低利率也使企业借贷容易,马尔萨斯降低成本和财政的增长,这并没有发生在目前的信贷紧缩也。 在所有这一切对经济衰退或恐慌,担心超过下跌股可以战胜任何轻微的利率调整的顶部。
什么会协调降息的成果?
世界各地央行17日上午提出削减0.5个百分点,其基准利率,标志着第一次协调行动,因为9月的恐怖袭击,2001。 这是一个特别行动,以加强市场和有助于缓解堵塞的信贷市场。 其中央行是美联储,加拿大银行,欧洲中央银行和英国,瑞士和瑞典的中央银行。 加拿大的主要银行隔夜利率下降至百分之2.5,而联邦基金利率至cent.Economists 1.5举出一个积极的和必要的步骤的行动,但他表示还是有更多的工作要做。 伦敦的资本经济,例如说,此举将提供“至少暂时增加信心。”霍特,副总裁经济学Scotia Capital的公司,列举了50个基点可能得不到足够的和可能不过客到消费者和企业。 到目前为止,在加拿大,主要银行已削减了只有1个百分点的优惠利率四分之一。 加拿大本身银行称,这一举措并不排除在其下再定于10月21日政策会议上降息。 事实上,多伦多道明银行副首席经济学家Craig亚历山大表示,该行预计,无论是美联储和加拿大央行再缩减0.5个百分点在其下届会议,欧洲央行和英国央行削减,甚至在今后几个月中深入。
是否减息往往会令通胀加剧?
在正常情况下这是正确的,这是对美联储维持利率稳定数月的原因之一。 但是,随着油价大幅下降,商品价格不断下降,通货膨胀的威胁正在让位给了对信贷的忧虑和对经济运作。
背后是什么在美联储10月7日计划收购商业票据?
央行正加紧作为一种在$ 100亿美元的商业票据市场的最后买家。 这是短期债务成千上万的公司来资助其日常运作,包括支付员工和购买用品的形式。 美联储希望能够推动这个市场,为企业腾出资金。 央行称,它正在采取由于货币市场共同基金和其他投资者的行动都不愿购买商业票据。 师Ian Stannard,在伦敦法国巴黎银行外汇分析师形容此举“可能是第一部的消息,我们已经有这样的开始,以解决金融体系的根本问题。 这是一个非常积极的一步,将是一个巨大的帮助把事情再次移动。
什么是该计划的具体情况如何?
利用大萧条时期的权力,美联储将创建一个新的临时贷款的车型,符合资格的公司可以挖掘的短期资金(不超过3个月的借据)。 作为回报,美联储将收取费用和利息,假设如养老金和货币市场基金的,私人投资者的作用,已成为太紧张购买文件。
如何有效地将美联储的新措施是什么?
这项历史性的举措,应疏通借据为这些企业的市场,帮助它们免受信贷紧缩的实体经济。 人们希望,随着时间的推移,私人投资者可以有足够的信心重返市场,允许美联储撤回。 反对者认为,商业票据市场仅仅是一块巨大的信用和相互联系的系统不再运作,美联储不可能国有化这一切。 信贷市场出现了一些轻微的缓和周二宣布,作为最有效的措施,迄今为止,已有观察家描述。 道格拉斯波特,在副BMO Nesbitt Burns的首席经济学家表示,央行正考虑将自己的“信用创造过程更加”,并因此而更冒险。 行得通吗? “这值得欢迎的步骤应减轻对那家公司,哪怕每天的日常运作,管理难度的压力...但问题困扰信贷市场如此多层面,任何行动将是一个单一的解决,”先生波特说,并指出,美联储想用割前将基准联邦基金利率一切可能的措施。
商品
是最近石油价格上升 , 直接关系到中东的冲突?
这是不可能准确确定是什么原因导致石油价格的变化,虽然爆炸敌对行动肯定是在价格最近几天跳因素。 任何中东冲突引发了该地区石油供应的担忧。
上周末在伊朗进行军事指挥官呼吁伊斯兰国家切断石油供应,以支持以色列的国家。 虽然这不被重视, - ,被驳回在石油输出国组织一些消息来源彻底-它确实使一些交易商感到紧张。
是否有一些正在展开如此激烈的价格其他的东西?
有很多因素,为能源价格上升,这是很难搞清楚哪个是最重要的。 除了在加沙的冲突,争端爆发元旦俄罗斯和乌克兰在天然气款项,这也对欧洲的能源供应中断,推高了价格。
与此同时,欧佩克的石油产量削减实行过程是,一些分析人士认为,在金融市场轻度乐观的情绪可能预示着更高的石油需求。 这些也可以为更高的价格的原因。
在尼日利亚的石油管道受损的报告也提出了对从该国供应一些疑虑-又一次价格上涨的压力可能的解释。
是什么的生产成本从艾伯塔沥青砂一一桶油? 什么价格是它不再有利可图?
而有所不同,当然,这取决于项目的各种因素。
但加拿大石油生产商协会表示,“所有生产的油砂油每桶成本75美元之间(美国)和每桶90美元。 这包括资金成本,经营费用,特许权使用费,税收和投资回报。
来自卡尔加里最近的一份报告为基础的投资商彼得斯公司的价格估计需要产生一个10每美分的税后在2012年就开始了新的发展回报率。 彼得斯说的门槛将是一蒸汽重力驱油每桶60美元(蒸汽辅助重力排水)工程,以综合的油砂与Upgrader以及对传统的采矿项目55美元开采项目100元不用升级。
彼得斯说,长期价格趋势仍然要支持油砂发展,特别是如果生产成本得以降低。
拥有石油价格已经超过百分之五十7月中旬以来,自从前放弃了这一快速下降?
1986年初,油价大幅下跌了约3个月约26美元(美国),至每桶今年开始刚刚超过10元,3月底,这已不是自70年代中期出现的价格。 对于价格下降归咎于放在提高沙特阿拉伯和其他欧佩克国家,此举引起了世界市场上过剩的生产。
同样是在九十年代末期是急跌,从多美元的1997美元以下大约一年后11日下跌22。 这是石油价格最低曾在十几年来进行交易。
同样,在石油输出国组织的责任了,因为它可能不同意减产。
需求下降,特别是亚洲经济已减弱- -也加剧了价格下滑的压力。
为什么沙特阿拉伯和其他欧佩克国家允许的原油价格下降得那么厉害? 他们不能采取调整生产石油价格?
欧佩克(即石油输出国组织)对生产确实有很大的控制,但它不是一个瞬间的过程和变化并不总是有立竿见影的效果。 9月初,欧佩克表示将削减约520.000桶生产,欧佩克设置,以满足10月24日谈论可能的进一步行动。 (周四,它转移了,从11月18日会议上提出的。)
但是,随着业务的阿尔伯塔大学教授约瑟夫杜塞特指出,欧佩克没有对价格的直接控制,但只能够控制其生产数量,这对价格的间接影响。 其他因素,如原油和美国汽油库存水平- -可以产生更大的影响。 此外,杜塞特教授说,石油价格已经迅速转移,在过去几个星期和生产的变化需要一段时间才能建立起来。
欧佩克的帐户内的另一个复杂的因素内政。 “沙特是欧佩克的任何国家的最大储量,是'病人'之一-与全国最长的看法,”教授杜塞特说。 “他们在石油价格适中的兴趣[由于]他们希望能够出售长期的石油。 较短的意见的国家,例如尼日利亚,有现金流更迫切的需要...就这样,担心长期的石油替代少。“
因此,即使欧佩克规定的配额,该组织不会在每一个国家一贯尊重他们。
是最近石油价格上升 , 直接关系到中东的冲突?
这是不可能准确确定是什么原因导致石油价格的变化虽然以色列之间的敌对行动和巴勒斯坦爆炸,当然是在最近几天的价格跳跃因素。 任何中东冲突引发了该地区石油供应的担忧。
上周末,在伊朗进行军事指挥官呼吁伊斯兰国家切断石油供应,以支持以色列的国家。 虽然这不被重视, - ,被驳回在石油输出国组织一些消息来源彻底-它确实使一些交易商感到紧张。
有没有使价格摆动如此激烈的其他东西?
有很多因素,为能源价格上升,很难搞清楚哪个是最重要的。
除了在加沙的冲突,争端爆发元旦俄罗斯和乌克兰之间的天然气多支付,这也对欧洲的能源供应中断,推高了价格。
与此同时,欧佩克的石油产量削减实行过程是,一些分析人士认为,在金融市场轻度乐观的情绪可能预示着更高的石油需求。 这些事件也促使价格上涨。
在尼日利亚的石油管道受损的报告也提出了对从该国供应一些疑虑-又一次的价格上涨的压力可能的解释。
信贷市场危机
什么是“货币市场”,为什么它的问题如果冻结?
货币市场是由短(一般不超过一年)的长期贷款,如定期存单,商业票据,银行承兑汇票,以及30天的短期国库券。 如果货币市场冻结了-换言之,没有人愿意做短期贷款,因为他们对违约借款人的担心-公司不能获得他们所需要的现金支付的工作人员,购买用品或支付租金。 公司经常需要贷款,因为这笔钱是他们的收入可能不到达数天或数周等待。 但是,如果他们不能获得短期的货币市场的现金,它可以使每天的日常工作变得非常困难。
什么是信用违约掉期?
这些最初成立一对坏帐的保险种类。 甲持有人支付“保险费”系列,作为回报,会得到奖金,如果指定的组织失败。 这是作为支付寿险保费收入,其中支付受益人得到一个相同的想法,只有指定的人死亡。 人寿保险一样,一切都处于平衡,除非有一种流行病,人们开始死亡的左,右。 随着越来越多的公司倒闭,或威胁这样做,公司发行了掉期遇到了麻烦。 这就是发生在保险公司AIG,卖出信贷违约,保护投资者对债券违约掉期。 当债券开始拖欠,美国国际集团本身就是离开脆弱。
什么是交易对手风险?
当你20元,借给朋友,交易对手风险的机会,他或她不会付钱给你们回来。 它的工作与企业或金融机构一样,虽然他们的风险计量是一个小更复杂。 如果对方风险高,交易商和银行不借钱,除非他们得到一些可靠的抵押或贷款担保,否则将有可能只是说“算了吧。”
商业票据发行通常只由最有信用的企业提供短期流动资金他们运行的一天,公司的日常运作。 发行人几乎总是需要对他们的商业票据信用评级,因为买主想要保证他们的钱是非常安全,并会尽快偿还。 但是,得到的信用评级是一项昂贵和费时的过程,是由债券评级机构进行。 因此,大多数商业票据的签发,只有稳定的大型公司或实体,如公用事业。
还有哪些其他措施可如果美国采取的救市计划和降息并不稳定市场和经济?
美国政府和美联储已经使用的工具包中的两个重要工具,试图阻止恐慌和稳定的金融系统:7000亿美元的问题资产救助的大银行,以及降息。 不过,也有尚未发挥作用的其他工具。 他们可能试图通过减税刺激个人的经济疲软,他们可以强化联邦基础设施的投资,创造就业机会,或者他们可以给特定的税收鼓励措施,例如自置居所。 虽然美国政府已经提高了10万美元银行存款保险的25万美元,它可以仿效一些欧洲国家,走向无限责任保险领先。 如果事情变得即使在主要金融机构的任何糟糕的是,政府可以采取直接股权。 这似乎是一种不太可能的行动,但目前的情况是前所未有的。
哪里的7000亿美元 , 在华尔街的救市计划(美国)去价格如何确定?
这笔钱将支付给华尔街的公司,银行,养老基金和其他公司持有不良抵押贷款和其他有毒资产。 这些值是不知道在这一点上,和所支付的金额将在逆向拍卖,决定在哪个资产卖方相互竞争,并决定如何便宜,他们将销售有毒债务。 政府通过新任命的金融稳定办公室,然后支付最低的价格。
这笔钱将永远不会收回?
美国财政部已表示,有一个很好的机会,它将恢复一些,如果不是所有的钱,虽然观察员不那么确定。 前救援工作实际上已开始盈利,虽然有的损失高达上百亿。
谁胜谁败?
虽然它的理论在这一点上,金融机构可以通过让胜出由政府买了什么是有效保费的有毒资产。 虽然银行可以对这些资产的出售部分,现在他们会做的Firesale价格,如果购买者发现。 在一个理想世界中,美国政府将持有的不良资产至到期时,希望房地产市场将得到恢复,然后销毁,至少在盈亏平衡。 但这是一个长期的过程,因此它是为时过早纳税人如何让出。
经济
福特汽车公司的首席执行官说 , 他将努力为一年一美元 , 如果情况紧急 , 汽车业 , 政府拨款资助。 谁是原来的“美元1年的男人”?
美元1年的男子富商人员通常在制造业- -谁是由政府招募的运行关键战时生产。 他们是政府支付工资的名义做的关键工作。
这个词最初是用来指男人谁去华盛顿,以帮助在第一次世界大战总统伍德罗威尔逊。 它被用来在二战中都再次在美国和加拿大。
在渥太华,光盘豪,是一切的“部长”(谁是真正的弹药和供应部长在战争期间)招募这些“降压几十个一岁的男子。”其中包括约翰威尔逊麦康奈尔的所有者和出版商蒙特利尔明星,人力资源麦克米兰,林业公司麦克米伦布洛德尔有限公司的创始人,和亨利摩根,摩根在蒙特利尔百货公司主席。
这个词是什么意思呢?
它被用来形容谁最近已因为它们的公司表现不佳大幅减薪公司高管。 几年前,约翰钱伯斯,美国电信设备公司思科系统公司总裁,降低了三年支付1美元后,该公司的股票价格下跌。 但他得到了在这个时期数百万股票期权。
上周动荡的国际保险公司美国国际集团表示,其新的董事长兼首席执行官爱德华利迪,将只美元的现金工资1今年和明年。 但是,他就会收到他的其他形式的补偿。
福特汽车公司总裁艾伦穆拉利日说,他将在1美元,每年的工作,如果汽车公司采取任何政府贷款。
如何在国家经济研究局的数字 , 美国已在一年衰退了?
在国家经济研究局不使用了衰退的通常定义-两个在国内生产总值下降四分之三。 相反,它寻找经济活动的高峰期,国内生产总值的考虑,如生产,就业,消费和实际收入,其他一些因素。
当达到峰值,经济开始显着下降,这是当经济衰退已经开始,根据小组。
这往往意味着一个正式的经济衰退-或至少期限-未声明,直到它正在顺利进行,甚至是结束了。 它意味着有时会出现经济衰退时,有没有两个季度的国内生产总值连续下降。 到目前为止,那样的话这个时间。
经济衰退将不被视为完成,直至经济达到谷底。
什么是国家经济研究局?
在国家经济研究局成立于1920年由经济学家集团谁想研究商业周期。 它是一个非盈利1000多大学教授和研究人员为“同伙”,谁研究如何对美国经济研究机构工作的运作。 由于它被认为是20世纪60年代正式仲裁人时,美国正面临经济衰退。
在国家经济研究局商业周期的约会委员会作出的决定,实际上宣布衰退。 这把钥匙委员会目前由经济学家的哈佛大学,斯坦福大学,麻省理工学院,西北大学,伯克利加州大学和研究机构会议委员会。
美国人“刺激”,他们的经济检查 , 发出了数百万公民今年春天。 加拿大已经做过这样的事情?
加拿大从未有检查,直接向公民,试图刺激经济。 The closest thing to that took place early in 2006 when the Alberta government sent $400 “resource rebate cheques” to every resident of the province – the so-called Ralphbucks. In that case, the idea was to share an unbudgeted surplus, not an attempt to stimulate the economy.
Occasionally in the past, Ottawa has cut income tax rates retroactively at the end of a year, so that many people got tax refund cheques in the spring, but that's not quite the same thing.
Wouldn't this kind of direct payment be a good idea?
The problem with direct rebates, and even tax cuts, is that a lot of the money doesn't actually help the domestic economy. Many people save the money, pay down debt, or buy consumer goods that are made in other countries.
Why is the US Fed's key interest rate (at 1 per cent) different from the Bank of Canada's key rate (2.25 per cent), yet the prime rate in both countries is the same (at 4 per cent)?
Last weekend's G20 meeting in Washington has been called Bretton Woods II. Wasn't there already a Bretton Woods II?
The term “Bretton Woods II” has been used for decades, but usually in a theoretical sense. Some countries or institutions have called for a Bretton Woods II when they wanted to revisit the way exchange rates were set, or to put in place a new global financial architecture. Sometimes this call has been accompanied by a proposal for a global meeting of economic and political leaders.
The original Bretton Woods conference in 1944 decided that the best route to a stable world economy was to set fixed exchange rates for currencies pegged to gold. (It also created the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund). By 1971, when the United States went off the gold standard, that system essentially collapsed.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, however, China and other countries fixed their exchange rate to the US dollar, while funding the United States' current account deficit. That era is sometimes referred to as Bretton Woods II.
But the term has gained its greatest currency in reference to last weekend's meeting of the G20 leaders, which was called – like the original postwar session – to try to fix a crumbling international financial marketplace.
What exactly is a 'have-not' province?
The calculation of equalization payments – thus determining provinces' “have” or “have not” status – is complex.
There are about 33 economic criteria that go into the formula, and these are averaged over several years.
But the calculation is heavily weighted toward the provinces' abilities to raise tax revenues, including resource royalties.
So when prices of resources such as oil and gas go up, provinces rich in these commodities are more likely to be “have” provinces – those with economic well-being that is above the average for all the provinces.
Because the numbers are averaged over an extended period, the drop in oil prices in the past few months won't likely change the relative status of the provinces in 2009, keeping Newfoundland, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia as “have” provinces.
Is there a better way to measure the economic health of the provinces?
According to Dale Orr, chief economist at Global Insight Canada, most economists determine the relative health of provinces or countries by looking at per capita measures of real gross domestic product. On that score, Ontario is not a “have not” province, and would not likely be next year or for some time to come.
In 2007, Ontario's real GDP per capita was about 4 per cent more than the national average (according to data just released in the past few days). It is expected to stay about 3 per cent above average next year, even though it is set to begin collecting equalization payments.
And even with tougher times ahead for Ontario's manufacturing base, the GDP per capita measure in the province is expected to stay above the Canadian average at least until 2013.
Why have European interest rates been so much higher than those in North America in recent months?
In Europe, as in every other developed economy, the central banks generally set interest rates to spur economic growth (by moving rates down) and to control inflation (by moving them up).
Until recently, inflation has been a much bigger concern in Europe than in North America, so rates there were set higher to try to keep upward price pressures in check. In the United States, growth has been sub-par for several years, so the Fed has already moved rates down to try to stimulate the economy.
In addition, Europeans tend to be even more concerned about inflation than North Americans, said Toronto-Dominion Bank senior economist Richard Kelly, because in Europe many wages are indexed to inflation. As a result, a jump in inflation in a country can almost immediately accelerate wage costs and damage the economy.
Now, the focus in Europe has shifted to economic growth, as the consequences of the implosion of US financial markets spread around the world. Inflation is much less of a worry, so we're seeing big interest rate cuts to try to curb shrinking European economies.
I read that Saudi Arabia is already one of the largest contributors to the International Monetary Fund. How much does it give?
Saudi Arabia is indeed one of the largest contributors to the IMF, and as such it has a large number of votes at the organization. Saudi Arabia's “quota” — or the amount of credit it provides to the IMF — is just over $10-billion (US), slightly more than Canada's quota of about $9.5-billion.
Since votes at the IMF are proportional to quota, that means Saudi Arabia has about 3.2 per cent of the votes, compared with Canada's 2.9 per cent.
That makes Saudi Arabia the sixth most powerful country within the 185 members of the IMF, beaten out only by the United States, Britain, Japan, Italy and France. The United States has the biggest quota (about $55-billion) and the largest number of votes (about 17 per cent of the total).
Member countries keep the bulk of their IMF commitments in their own reserves at home, but they may be called on to provide cash when troubled members seek help.
With the economic downturn, is Canada's unemployment rate anywhere near a record high?
The unemployment rate may rise in the coming months, but at the moment it is very low in historical terms. The current rate, at 6.1 per cent, is not far above the 33-year low of 5.8 per cent that was hit in the early months of this year. Economists are expecting the rate to rise to 6.2 per cent when the new labour force numbers for October are released later in November.
We have had much higher unemployment rates at several times in the past. During the depth of the Depression, in 1933, the rate peaked at about 25 per cent. By the end of the Second World War there was virtually no unemployment, and for the next three decades the rate stayed below 7 per cent. Then in the early 1980s and again in the early 1990s there were spikes when unemployment rose above the 11-per-cent mark, but it has been trending downward since then.
When the Canadian dollar took its recent dip, did it come close to its lowest point ever relative to the US dollar?
The Canadian dollar bottomed out at 61.75 cents (US) in January, 2002, so the fall to 77.59 cents on Oct. 27 was quite a way from that point. What was more unusual about the recent drop was the speed with which it occurred. The dollar tumbled more than 19 cents in the space of a month.
The recovery has also been quick, however. The dollar was up more than 7 cents in the five trading days since it hit the trough a week ago.
The Canadian dollar's highest point compared with the US dollar, at least in modern times, came just last November, when it briefly nudged above $1.10. Way back, during the US Civil War in the 1860s, the Canadian dollar reached $2.78.
Why do economists always say that the consumer is 70% of the economy? Isn't the consumer really 100% of the economy, since all business is just an intermediary activity that ultimately sells to the consumer?
In a broad sense, you are right that individual consumers ultimately make up the entire economy, said Doug Porter, deputy chief economist at BMO Nesbitt Burns. But the way economic activity is measured, there are different categories that make up the overall picture, he said. This includes government spending, residential construction, domestic business purchases and exports, along with consumer spending.
But Mr. Porter notes that the 70-per-cent number you are referring to actually applies only to the United States, “which is the real outlier compared to most of the rest of the world.” Elsewhere, consumer spending makes up a much smaller proportion of the economy.
In Canada, consumer spending is about 55 per cent of the economy. The big difference between us and the Americans is that health care purchases are mainly made by government here, while in the United States most of that spending comes under the consumer category, because individuals write the cheques.
Government consumption makes up almost 20 per cent of the economy in Canada.
What provinces have run deficits in recent years?
Most provinces have had balanced budgets or surpluses for several years. The only exception is Prince Edward Island, which had a small deficit of $37-million in its 2007-08 fiscal year, and projected a $35-million shortfall for 2008-09.
The days of almost-universal provincial surpluses may be gone, however, because of the gloomy economic outlook. Ontario said Wednesday that it will now have a $500-million deficit in the current fiscal year because it does not want to cut health or education spending, even though its revenue is declining. That's a change in direction after three years of surpluses.
Alberta has been running surpluses for the longest period – it hasn't had a budget deficit in 15 years, thanks to its blossoming oil revenue. And Alberta is also the only province that has managed to completely eliminate its accumulated debt. That happened in 2004.
The international financial summit set for November has been called Bretton Woods II. What was the first Bretton Woods conference?
Bretton Woods is the informal name for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in Bretton Woods, NH, in July, 1944. Officials from 44 countries attended. The central agreement hammered out there said each country would maintain a fixed exchange rate – a policy that has long since collapsed – in order to help encourage the flow of capital across borders. The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank and the World Trade Organization trace their origins to the meeting. The coming summit is likely to be held in New York after the Nov. 4 US election.
Several countries are now lining up for assistance from the International Monetary fund. What is the IMF?
The IMF, established at the 1944 Bretton Woods conference, provides financial help to countries in serious economic trouble. It uses money gleaned from its 185 member countries.
Those funds, called quotas, vary depending on each country's size and strength. The US has the biggest quota, at $58-billion. Canada's quota is about $10-billion. Countries keep the bulk of their IMF commitments in their own reserves at home, but they may be called on to provide cash when troubled members seek help.
Voting rights in the fund are proportional to quota. Rich nations also contribute to a separate emergency fund. The total quotas now amount to more than $350-billion, and the fund has about $20-billion in outstanding loans to more than 60 countries.
The IMF makes money on the spread between what it earns on its loans and what it pays in interest to countries that provide the funds. It uses that cash to pay administration costs.
Why would a recession push the Canadian government into a deficit position?
A recession would likely cut into Ottawa's revenue at a time when it is not expecting a very big surplus. If there is no economic growth, the government will take in less personal income tax, corporate tax and GST.
At the same time, employment insurance benefits could rise if more people are out of work, and there will be pressure to stimulate the economy with government spending.
Unless the government actually cuts spending, it could be forced into a deficit position. The same would apply for any individual province.
Isn't there a “buffer” to take up some of this slack?
When Paul Martin was finance minister, he usually included a “reserve for economic prudence” to protect against the economy being weaker than forecast, and a “contingency fund” to protect against other unforeseen problems, says Dale Orr, chief economist at Global Insight Canada.
However, in its 2008 budget the Conservative government did not set aside either of those reserves, and that might force it to take extraordinary actions to avoid a deficit.
Iceland may become the first western nation in 32 years to get a loan from the International Monetary Fund. Which was the last one?
In 1976 Britain received a loan of more than $4-billion (US) from the IMF after inflation leapt to record levels and the pound fell sharply. In return, the IMF demanded that Chancellor of the Exchequer Denis Healey cut spending and implement other austere economic measures. Reports Monday said Iceland is expected to get about $1-billion from the IMF, as part of a $6-billion rescue package that includes funds from central banks in Scandinavia and Japan. Iceland's government was recently forced to take over the country's major banks after their liquidity plunged and the country's currency lost more than half its value.
What is deficit financing?
It is the concept, first promoted by British economist John Maynard Keynes in the 1930s, that governments should be prepared to run deficits during tough times in order to stimulate the economy by increasing spending. It was not enough to let market forces deal with high unemployment, he said.
The idea was that budgets would be balanced over the course of an entire business cycle, as revenues would increase – and surpluses would replenish government coffers – when the good times returned.
The concept fell out of favour in the 1970s and 1980s, when many governments began to run large deficits on a regular basis and cumulative debt spiralled out of control. There was no Keynesian solution to “stagflation” – prolonged periods of inflation, low economic growth and high unemployment.
Why could a recession push the federal government into a deficit position?
A recession would likely cut into Ottawa's revenue at a time when it is not expecting a very big surplus. If there is no economic growth, the government will take in less personal income tax, corporate tax and GST. At the same time, employment insurance benefits could rise if more people are out of work, and there will be pressure to stimulate the economy with government spending. Unless the government actually cuts spending, it could be forced into a deficit position.
Isn't there a “buffer” to take up some of this slack?
When Paul Martin was finance minister, he usually included a “reserve for economic prudence” to protect against the economy being weaker than forecast, and a “contingency fund” to protect against other unforeseen problems, says Dale Orr, chief economist at Global Insight Canada.
However, in its 2008 budget the Conservative government did not set aside either of those reserves, and that might force it to take extraordinary actions to avoid a deficit. Mr. Orr thinks there will be likely be a budget deficit in the 2009-2010 fiscal year because the surplus forecast was so small – about $1.8-billion.
Everybody keeps talking about a recession, but when will we know if we're really in one?
The classic definition of a recession is a period when the economy shrinks for two consecutive quarters. But that is considered very rough and imprecise by most economists.
By that measure we won't know whether Canada or the United States is in recession now until well into next year. The third-quarter gross domestic product (GDP) numbers are due at the end of November, and the fourth-quarter stats will be out at the end of February. In the second quarter, both economies grew.
One of the problems with the simple definition of recession is that it doesn't take into account swings in the economy. If GDP shrinks in one quarter by 2 per cent, rises in the next by 0.5 per cent, then shrinks in the third by another 2 per cent, then the country is not in recession under the definition, although it very likely is, in reality.
On the other hand, two consecutive 0.2-per-cent drops would mean we're in recession, even if there was strong growth in earlier quarters. That's not very realistic either.
GDP numbers can also be skewed by population growth, which can disguise a possible recession. And they are often revised months after the fact, so that what initially looked like a recession might not actually have been one.
“We've had situations in history where a recession has been revised away, two years later,” says Dale Orr, chief economist at Global Insight Canada.
来源:环球邮报-加拿大




















































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